This page is representative of my thesis completed for MA Historical Costume from Arts University Bournemouth, UK.
Medieval Fabric Dyeing
Fabric dyeing was a complex skill that required many years of training to master. Apprentices usually trained under a master for 7 years to work up to the level of journeyman(Kay-Williams, 2013, p.47). After some time in this position, the final test was to complete a masterpiece (ibid). The masterpiece involved dyeing woollen cloth to a consistent color, usually one of the most popular colors of red or blue (ibid). Woollen cloth was an excellent test of skill because it is much more difficult to dye a woven piece than loose yarn (ibid).
Guilds were an important part of medieval life, usually serving the role of a union to protect the members (Kay-Williams, 2013, p.60). They also provided a community where members could put on plays, feast, and support each other (Tuchman, 1978, p.42). Dyers guilds were numerous and powerful in much of Europe, but they did not begin forming in England until the second part of the 14th century (Kay-Williams, 2013, p.60).
Being so far away from the dye centres of the known world, English dyeing was very limited in the early Middle Ages (Kay-Williams, 2013, p.61). Their primary industry and export was wool until the mid 14th century when King Edward III encouraged Flemish dyers to move in, expanding the British textile trade, and the first dyers guilds did not form until that time (ibid).
Natural Pigments
Mordants
When using natural dyes on protein fibres, it is necessary to first scour the the fabric. The next step is to apply a mordant which is a substance that will allow natural dyes to permanently adhere to fabric. Most dyes require a mordant, woad and indigo being the exceptions, so this meant three out of four lengths of my fabric would require a mordant (Wild Colour, 2023).
The mordant alum is the go-to choice. Appearing in the manuscript Mappae Clavicula, it was clearly readily available in the Middle Ages (Kay-Williams, 2013, p.42). It also tends to be neutral and not react with most dyestuffs, where a mordant like iron sulphate can cause a colour shift (Wild Colour, 2023).
Figure 1: Wool simmering in mordant.
Blue: Woad
Blue was a prominent color in the later Middle Ages. It was first popularized in the 12th century as a color associated with the Virgin Mary, where before it was a background color and that of the lower classes (Kay-Williams, 2013, pp.53-54; Scott, 2007, p.42). It eventually became so prestigious a color that in the 13th century, King Louis IX became the first monarch to be portrayed wearing blue (Kay-Williams, 2013, p.55).
Blue was most commonly achieved by dyeing with woad, a plant that grew widely in Europe (ibid). As its trade increased, it became a hotly contested commodity, sparking conflicts and embargoed in wars (ibid, pp.56-57). The economies of whole cities revolved around the crop and were subsequently called 'woad towns' (ibid, p.55). Though it was recorded as being used as far back as the Iron Age, England's woad supply was primarily imported from France (ibid; Woad, 2023).
Dyeing with woad is a tricky task and it is one of the most difficult natural dyes to use. The pigment reacts with oxygen, so in order to create a dye bath, the vat must be completely oxygen depleted by use of fermentation or chemicals (ibid). Once the bath has been created, the pH levels must be a basic 9 or 10 before the fabric can be added (ibid). The fabric is added for a minute at a time, then taken out to aerate, then dipped into the bath again, repeating a few times (ibid).
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Yellow: Weld
One of the core dyestuffs from early on, weld produces a bright yellow and dyes easily on wool, silk, linen, and cotton, and even has the trait of softening wool (Kay-Williams, 2013, p.57). It was commonly used with other dyes to create oranges and greens. The flower grew locally in England in Yorkshire, Essex, and Kent (ibid). It is the oldest known plant dye having been used by the Romans (MFA Boston, 2022). The earliest surviving medieval recipe was found in Mappae Clavicula, a Carolingian manuscript written around the 7th century (Priest-Dorman, 2001, p.1).
To use as a dye, weld powder is mixed with water to make a paste, then dissolved into a vat of water (Wild Colour, 2023). Fabric is added to the vat and the temperature is brought up to a simmer where the it remains for about an hour (ibid). Once finished, the fabric and vat are left to cool overnight (ibid).
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Red: Brazilwood
Brazilwood dye is taken from the central dead part of the Brazilwood tree (Kay-Williams, 2013, p.48). It was a new dyestuff with documented trade into Europe by the 13th century, although it was mentioned in 12th century Scottish law and found on textiles from the 11th (ibid).
Brazilwood's dye component is brazilin and was less commonly used than madder (Kay-Williams, 2013, p.48). In the early Middle Ages, it was imported from Asia, but when the Portuguese discovered brazilin off the coast of South America, the trade was taken over by what is now Brazil (Bain and Dapson, 2015; Encyclopedia Britannica, 2021).
The process for dyeing with brazilwood is exactly like that of weld.
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Green: Iron
Iron was a commonly used dye modifier in the Middle Ages, being readily available as simply rusted metal soaked in water and vinegar (Kay-Williams, 2013, pp.37, 45; Margaret Byrd, 2023). It reacts with several natural dyes and shifts the color to muddier tones, creating a green-like shade with weld.
To use, fabric previously dyed with weld was soaked and dipped into an iron bath. The iron bath was made by dissolving iron ferrous sulphate with warm water. After some time, the color shifted to deeper golden tones. Unfortunately, it never reached green, but the golden tones were very nice.
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Figure List
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Wool simmering in mordant.
Colvard, J. (2023). Wool simmering in mordant. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Finished wool fabric dyed with woad.
Colvard, J. (2023). Finished wool fabric dyed with woad. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Preparing woad powder and soda ash.
Colvard, J. (2023). Preparing woad powder and soda ash. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Fabric simmers in dye pot.
Colvard, J. (2023). Fabric simmers in dye pot. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Lifting fabric out of dye pot.
Colvard, J. (2023). Lifting fabric out of dye pot. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Fabric drying.
Colvard, J. (2023). Fabric drying. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Finished fabric dyed in weld.
Colvard, J. (2023). Finished fabric dyed in weld. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Weld mixed with water to form a paste.
Colvard, J. (2023). Weld mixed with water to form a paste. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Fabric simmering in dye pot.
Colvard, J. (2023). Fabric simmering in dye pot. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Fabric after cooling overnight.
Colvard, J. (2023). Fabric after cooling overnight. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Rinsing fabric in tub.
Colvard, J. (2023). Rinsing fabric in tub. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
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Fabric drying.
Colvard, J. (2023). Fabric drying. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Finished fabric dyed with brazilwood.
Colvard, J. (2023). Finished fabric dyed with brazilwood. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Fabric simmering in dye pot.
Colvard, J. (2023). Fabric simmering in dye pot. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Fabric after cooling overnight.
Colvard, J. (2023). Fabric after cooling overnight. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Fabric drying.
Colvard, J. (2023). Fabric drying. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Finished fabric dyed with weld and iron.
Colvard, J. (2023). Finished fabric dyed with weld and iron. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Iron bath.
Colvard, J. (2023). Iron bath. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Fabric initially added to iron bath.
Colvard, J. (2023). Fabric initially added to iron bath. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Iron bath shifting weld's color.
Colvard, J. (2023). Iron bath shifting weld's color. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
Fabric drying.
Colvard, J. (2023). Wool simmering in mordant. [photograph]. In possession of: the author.
References
Dapson, R.W. and Bain, C.L. (2015). Brazilwood, Sappanwood, Brazilin and the Red Dye Brazilein. Biotechnic & Histochemistry: Official Publication of the Biological Stain Commission. Vol. 90 No. 6. pp. 401–423 [online]. https://doi.org/10.3109/10520295.2015.1021381 [Accessed 2 August 2023].
Encyclopedia Britannica (2021). Brazilwood [online]. Available from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/brazilwood [Accessed 2 August 2023].
Kay-Williams, S. (2013). The Story of Colour in Textiles. London: A. & C. Black.
Margaret Byrd: Color Quest. (2023). How to Make Green Dye with Weld & Iron Water YouTube. [online]. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KzgWpkrhEbI [Accessed: 20 May 2023].
MFA Boston: Cameo Materials Database (2022). Weld Dye [online]. Available from: https://cameo.mfa.org/wiki/Weld_dye [Accessed 2 August 2023].
Priest-Dorman, C. (2001). A Grass that Grows in Bologna: Dyeing with Weld. Medieval Textiles. No. 29 [online]. [Accessed 2 August 2023].
Scott, M. (2007). Medieval Dress & Fashion. London: British Library.
Tuchman, B.W. (1978). A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Wild Colours (2023). Mordanting Wool [online]. Available from: http://www.wildcolours.co.uk/html/wool.html [Accessed 24 July 2023].
Wild Colours (2023a). Using Brazilwood Extract [online]. Available from: http://www.wildcolours.co.uk/html/brazilwood_extract.html [Accessed 16 May 2023].
Wild Colours (2023b). Using Madder Extract [online]. Available from: http://www.wildcolours.co.uk/html/madder_extract.html [Accessed 16 May 2023].
Wild Colours (2023c). Using Weld Extract [online]. Available from: http://www.wildcolours.co.uk/html/weld_extract.html [Accessed 16 May 2023].
Woad (2023). Dyeing with Woad [online]. Available from: http://www.woad.org.uk/html/chemical.html [Accessed 16 May 2023].